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# Ethical theories in brief: duty, consequences, virtue, casuistry, care

- Theory

Ethical theories give different reasons for what is right: duty, consequences, character or similar cases.

Updated Nov 5, 2026

## Key points

- Deontology (Kant): some duties bind regardless of outcome; always treat a person as an end, never merely as a means.
- Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill): the right act is the one that produces the greatest total good.
- Virtue ethics (Aristotle): the question is what a good, prudent person would do in that position.
- Casuistry: reasons from similar paradigm cases, as law does with precedent.
- Ethics of care (Gilligan, Noddings): attends to relationships, dependence and vulnerability.

## What it is

Behind each principle there are moral theories that justify why something is right or wrong. Deontology looks at duties and the dignity of the person; utilitarianism at consequences; virtue ethics at the character of the one who acts; casuistry at similar cases already settled; the ethics of care at relationships and vulnerability. Principlism borrows from several of them. None settles every case on its own; knowing them helps understand the arguments on each side.

## Core ideas

- Kant states the categorical imperative: treat humanity, in yourself and others, always as an end and never merely as a means.
- The classical utilitarians (Bentham, Mill) measure good by the pleasure or well-being an act produces.
- Virtue ethics asks what kind of person the doctor should be, rather than which rule applies.
- Modern casuistry in bioethics was defended by Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin.

## Ethical theories at a glance

| Theory | Core idea | Question it asks | Main criticism |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Deontology (Kant) | Some duties and rights always bind | What is my duty here? | Rigid when two duties clash |
| Utilitarianism | The greatest good for the greatest number | Which option gives the best total outcome? | May sacrifice one person for the good of many |
| Virtue ethics | The agent's character: prudence, compassion, honesty | What would a good doctor do? | Gives little guidance in specific cases |
| Casuistry | Compare with settled paradigm cases | Which clear case does this one resemble? | Depends on which cases are chosen as models |
| Ethics of care | Relationships, dependence and vulnerability | What does this person need and who cares for them? | May neglect impartiality |
| Principlism | Four prima facie principles that are balanced | Which principles conflict and which weighs more? | Does not rank the principles |

## In clinical practice

- Asking consent even when the outcome would be the same without it is a deontological argument.
- Public health and resource allocation decisions often use utilitarian arguments.
- Honesty and compassion when breaking bad news are virtues, not only rules.
- Ethics committees compare a new case with cases already analysed: that is casuistry.

## Criticisms and limits

- No theory settles every case on its own; in practice they are combined.
- The weaknesses of one theory are often the strengths of another (firm rules versus outcomes, for example).

## Test yourself

Think of the answer, then tap the question to see it.

## Which ethical theory holds that a person must never be treated merely as a means?

Kant's deontology (the formula of humanity of the categorical imperative).

## What is the classic criticism of utilitarianism in medicine?

It can justify sacrificing one person's rights if that yields a greater total good.

## What question does virtue ethics ask?

What a good, prudent person, such as a good doctor, would do in that situation; it looks at character more than rules.

## How does casuistry reason?

It compares the new case with settled paradigm cases and sees which it resembles most, as law does with precedent.

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## Connections

## Related 1

- [The four principles of bioethics (principlism)](https://durgical.com/en/medical-ethics/the-four-principles-of-bioethics/)

[← All of medical ethics](https://durgical.com/en/medical-ethics/)

Educational content on ethics and health law; not legal advice. Laws and case law change: each page links the official text and says when it was last checked. For a real case, read the text in force and ask a lawyer or the medical ethics tribunal.

Sources: [Kant's Moral Philosophy](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/) (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2025); [Consequentialism](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/) (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2023); [Virtue Ethics](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/) (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2026).

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