[Durgical](https://durgical.com/en/) › [DurgiPedia](https://durgical.com/en/durgipedia/) › [Physiology](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/) › Neurophysiology # Neurophysiology Synapses, sensation, pain, motor control, the autonomic system, special senses and sleep. 55 pages ## Exam priority: high - [**Adrenergic and cholinergic receptors** Table to know · Adrenaline and acetylcholine act through different receptor types; knowing which type sits on an…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/adrenergic-and-cholinergic-receptors/) - [**Basal ganglia and movement control** Regulation · Deep brain nuclei work as brake and accelerator for movement, letting the wanted action through](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/basal-ganglia-and-movement-control/) - [**Cerebral blood flow, brain metabolism and intracranial pressure** Regulation · The brain uses a fifth of the body's oxygen and stores no fuel, so its blood flow is tightly…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/cerebral-blood-flow-brain-metabolism-and-intracranial-pressure/) - [**Motor cortex and the corticospinal tract** Concept · The motor cortex plans voluntary movement and sends the command down the corticospinal tract…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/motor-cortex-and-the-corticospinal-tract/) - [**Pain and temperature: pathways and modulation** Mechanism · Pain starts at free nerve endings, rides two fibre speeds up the spinal cord, and the body can…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/pain-and-temperature-pathways-and-modulation/) - [**Somatosensory pathways: dorsal column and anterolateral** Concept · Touch, vibration and position travel up the cord in one bundle, pain and temperature in another](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/somatosensory-pathways-dorsal-column-and-anterolateral/) - [**Spinal cord reflexes** Regulation · A reflex is a fast, automatic loop through the spinal cord: tap the tendon and the muscle jerks…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/spinal-cord-reflexes/) - [**Synaptic transmission** Mechanism · A nerve cell passes its signal to the next one by releasing a chemical messenger across a tiny…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/synaptic-transmission/) - [**The autonomic nervous system: organization** Concept · The autonomic system runs the organs without conscious control: the sympathetic side prepares…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-autonomic-nervous-system-organization/) - [**Upper versus lower motor neuron lesions** Concept · Weakness from the brain or cord is stiff with brisk reflexes; weakness from the nerve or…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/upper-versus-lower-motor-neuron-lesions/) ## Exam priority: medium - [**Aqueous humor and intraocular pressure** Regulation · The eye makes and drains a clear fluid all the time; if drainage fails, pressure rises and can…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/aqueous-humor-and-intraocular-pressure/) - [**Arousal and consciousness: the reticular activating system** Regulation · A network in the upper brainstem keeps the cortex awake; consciousness needs that network plus…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/arousal-and-consciousness-the-reticular-activating-system/) - [**Association cortex: space, faces, reading and executive function** Concept · Most of the cortex does not see, feel or move directly; it combines those signals to map space…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/association-cortex-space-faces-reading-and-executive-function/) - [**Brain rhythms and how seizures start and spread** Mechanism · The EEG records the summed signals of millions of cortical cells firing together; a seizure is…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/brain-rhythms-and-how-seizures-start-and-spread/) - [**Brainstem motor control and abnormal posturing** Regulation · The brainstem holds the body up against gravity; when the cortex can no longer restrain it, the…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/brainstem-motor-control-and-abnormal-posturing/) - [**Colour vision and colour blindness** Mechanism · Three kinds of cones each prefer a different part of the spectrum; the brain reads colour from…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/colour-vision-and-colour-blindness/) - [**Control of eye movements: fixation, saccades, pursuit and gaze centres** Regulation · The brain keeps both eyes pointed at the same target: it holds them still, jumps them fast to…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/control-of-eye-movements-fixation-saccades-pursuit-and-gaze-centres/) - [**CSF and the blood–brain barrier** Concept · The brain floats in a clear fluid made inside its cavities, and a tight wall of vessel cells…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/csf-and-the-blood-brain-barrier/) - [**Functions of the cerebellum** Regulation · The cerebellum compares the movement that was planned with the one being made and corrects it…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/functions-of-the-cerebellum/) - [**Functions of the hypothalamus** Regulation · A small region below the thalamus that keeps the body's settings: temperature, water, hunger…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/functions-of-the-hypothalamus/) - [**Headache physiology** Mechanism · The brain itself feels no pain; headaches come from the meninges, blood vessels, nerves and…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/headache-physiology/) - [**Hearing: middle ear, cochlea and auditory pathway** Mechanism · The ear turns sound waves into nerve signals: the middle ear boosts them, the cochlea sorts them…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/hearing-middle-ear-cochlea-and-auditory-pathway/) - [**How the nervous system is organized: input, integration, output and levels** Concept · Nerves bring in information, the brain and cord sort it and decide, and nerves carry the orders…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/how-the-nervous-system-is-organized-input-integration-output-and-levels/) - [**Learning and memory** Mechanism · Memories are stored by strengthening the connections between neurons; the hippocampus files…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/learning-and-memory/) - [**Muscle spindle and Golgi tendon organ** Mechanism · Two sensors tell the spinal cord how long a muscle is and how hard it pulls, so movement stays…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/muscle-spindle-and-golgi-tendon-organ/) - [**Optics of the eye, accommodation and refractive errors** Concept · The cornea and lens bend light onto the retina; if the eye is too long or too short, the image…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/optics-of-the-eye-accommodation-and-refractive-errors/) - [**Sensory receptors, coding and neuronal circuits** Concept · Sense organs turn touch, light, sound or chemicals into nerve impulses; the brain reads which…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/sensory-receptors-coding-and-neuronal-circuits/) - [**Spinal shock and the isolated cord** Mechanism · When the spinal cord is cut, everything below goes silent for a while; later the cord's own…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/spinal-shock-and-the-isolated-cord/) - [**Sympathetic and parasympathetic effects on each organ** Table to know · The sympathetic system prepares the body for action; the parasympathetic one for rest, digestion…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/sympathetic-and-parasympathetic-effects-on-each-organ/) - [**The autonomic nerve terminal: release, reuptake and drug targets** Mechanism · Autonomic nerves make, store, release and recycle their transmitters; many drugs act by speeding…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-autonomic-nerve-terminal-release-reuptake-and-drug-targets/) - [**The main neurotransmitters** Table to know · Neurons talk with a small set of chemicals; each one has its own jobs, its source nuclei and the…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-main-neurotransmitters/) - [**The retina and phototransduction** Mechanism · Light makes rods and cones go quiet; the retina turns that change into the signals the brain…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-retina-and-phototransduction/) - [**The somatosensory cortex, association areas and judging stimulus intensity** Concept · The strip of brain behind the central sulcus maps the body; areas behind it turn raw touch into…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-somatosensory-cortex-association-areas-and-judging-stimulus-intensity/) - [**The vestibular system, tone and posture** Mechanism · Sensors in the inner ear detect head turns and tilts, keep the eyes steady and keep the body…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-vestibular-system-tone-and-posture/) - [**The visual pathway, pupillary reflexes and eye movements** Concept · Signals go from the eye to the back of the brain; where the path is damaged decides which part…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-visual-pathway-pupillary-reflexes-and-eye-movements/) - [**Visceral and referred pain** Mechanism · Organs hurt in a vague, deep way, and the brain often blames the skin that shares the same…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/visceral-and-referred-pain/) - [**Visual processing in the thalamus and cortex: LGN, V1 and the two streams** Concept · The eye's signal goes through a relay in the thalamus to the back of the brain, which splits it…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/visual-processing-in-the-thalamus-and-cortex-lgn-v1-and-the-two-streams/) - [**Wakefulness, sleep, the EEG and seizures** Regulation · The brain cycles between waking, deep sleep and dream sleep; the EEG shows each state as a…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/wakefulness-sleep-the-eeg-and-seizures/) ## For completeness - [**Autonomic tone and denervation supersensitivity** Regulation · Autonomic nerves fire slowly all the time; that steady tone lets them turn organs up or down…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/autonomic-tone-and-denervation-supersensitivity/) - [**Binocular vision and depth perception** Concept · Each eye sees from a slightly different spot; the brain merges the two pictures and uses their…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/binocular-vision-and-depth-perception/) - [**Coding pitch and loudness, locating sound and the auditory cortex** Mechanism · Pitch is read from where the cochlea vibrates most, loudness from how many fibres fire and how…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/coding-pitch-and-loudness-locating-sound-and-the-auditory-cortex/) - [**How the motor system works together** Concept · Cord, brainstem and cortex give the orders; the cerebellum and basal ganglia check timing, size…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/how-the-motor-system-works-together/) - [**Motor planning areas: premotor, supplementary and specialised fields** Concept · In front of the primary motor strip, other areas plan movements, sequence them and aim the eyes…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/motor-planning-areas-premotor-supplementary-and-specialised-fields/) - [**Neuronal integration: dendrites, presynaptic inhibition, electrical synapses and firing rate** Mechanism · A neuron adds up thousands of small pushes and pulls on its dendrites; if the sum at the axon…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/neuronal-integration-dendrites-presynaptic-inhibition-electrical-synapses-and-fi/) - [**Neuronal pools and circuits: divergence, convergence, reverberation and stability** Concept · Groups of neurons are wired to spread, gather, repeat or rhythm signals; built-in brakes keep…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/neuronal-pools-and-circuits-divergence-convergence-reverberation-and-stability/) - [**Position sense, itch and the kinds of somatic sensation** Concept · With eyes closed you still know where your limbs are and when they move; this comes mostly from…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/position-sense-itch-and-the-kinds-of-somatic-sensation/) - [**Retinal processing: ganglion cells, receptive fields and adaptation** Mechanism · Before the signal leaves the eye, the retina compresses it: ganglion cells report edges…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/retinal-processing-ganglion-cells-receptive-fields-and-adaptation/) - [**Spinal motor circuits: interneurons, posture and stepping** Concept · The spinal cord is not just a cable: its own circuits can support weight, step, scratch and lock…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/spinal-motor-circuits-interneurons-posture-and-stepping/) - [**Taste and smell** Mechanism · Taste buds detect five basic tastes; the nose adds thousands of smells](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/taste-and-smell/) - [**Taste and smell coding: thresholds, adaptation, preference and aversion** Concept · Bitter is detected at the tiniest amounts because it warns of poison; smells fade quickly as you…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/taste-and-smell-coding-thresholds-adaptation-preference-and-aversion/) - [**The cerebral cortex and language** Concept · Different areas of the cortex handle movement, sensation and language; damage to each one causes…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-cerebral-cortex-and-language/) - [**The limbic system, emotion and reward** Concept · A ring of brain structures links feelings, memory and motivation, and drives the body's…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-limbic-system-emotion-and-reward/) - [**The neurovascular unit and brain waste clearance** Concept · Active brain areas call for more blood within seconds, and fluid flowing along vessels washes…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/the-neurovascular-unit-and-brain-waste-clearance/) - [**Thermal sensation: warm and cold receptors** Mechanism · Separate nerve endings in the skin report cold and warmth; extreme cold or heat switches on pain…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/thermal-sensation-warm-and-cold-receptors/) - [**Why we sleep: functions of sleep and sleep loss** Concept · Sleep restores the brain and body: it fixes memories, clears waste and resets hormones; lose it…](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/why-we-sleep-functions-of-sleep-and-sleep-loss/) ## A to Z - [A](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/a/) - [B](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/b/) - [C](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/c/) - [D](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/d/) - [E](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/e/) - [F](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/f/) - [G](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/g/) - [H](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/h/) - [I](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/i/) - [L](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/l/) - [M](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/m/) - [N](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/n/) - [O](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/o/) - [P](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/p/) - [R](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/r/) - [S](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/s/) - [T](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/t/) - [U](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/u/) - [V](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/v/) - [W](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/a-z/w/) [← Physiology](https://durgical.com/en/physiology/) Educational physiology content; not a diagnostic or treatment guide and no substitute for a health professional's advice. Values are approximate references. No doses are given. Representative model, for educational purposes only. --- Source: https://durgical.com/en/physiology/areas/neuro/ License: CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Cite as: DurgiPedia (durgical.com), https://durgical.com/en/physiology/areas/neuro/