DurgicalDurgical
EN
Open the app

Pharmacology

How the most used drugs work, from the molecule to the patient: their target in 3D, what the body does with them, what they treat and what to watch. Linked to Biochemistry and DurgiPedia's conditions.

658 drugs in 178 classes

General principles

Cardiovascular

Haematology and coagulation

Anti-infectives

Endocrine and metabolism

Nervous system and psychiatry

Analgesia and anaesthesia

Respiratory

Gastrointestinal

Renal, diuretics and electrolytes

Oncology

Immunology and rheumatology

Obstetrics and gynaecology

Ophthalmology

Vaccines, immunoglobulins and antivenoms

Antidotes and toxicology

Drugs A to Z

  • AbacavirNucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
  • AbataceptOther immunomodulating biologics · CD80 and CD86 (B7-1 and B7-2) on antigen-presenting cells
  • AbciximabAntiplatelet drugs · Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (integrin αIIbβ3)
  • AbirateroneAntiandrogens and androgen synthesis inhibitors · CYP17A1 (17α-hydroxylase/C17,20-lyase)
  • AcamprosateMedicines for alcohol use disorder · Glutamate and GABA systems (mechanism not fully known)
  • AcarboseOther glucose-lowering drugs · Intestinal alpha-glucosidases (maltase-glucoamylase, sucrase-isomaltase) and pancreatic alpha-amylase
  • AcetazolamideCarbonic anhydrase inhibitors · Carbonic anhydrase II
  • AcetylcysteineSpecific antidotes · Hepatic glutathione and the toxic metabolite NAPQI
  • Acetylsalicylic acidNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) · Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1/COX-2)
  • AciclovirAnti-herpesvirus agents · Viral DNA polymerase (herpes simplex and varicella-zoster)
  • Activated charcoalSpecific antidotes · Adsorption of the poison in the gut lumen
  • AdalimumabTNF inhibitors · Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), soluble and membrane-bound
  • AlbendazoleAnthelmintics · Helminth β-tubulin (colchicine site)
  • AlirocumabPCSK9 inhibitors · PCSK9 (circulating protein)
  • AllopurinolXanthine oxidase inhibitors · Xanthine oxidase
  • AlprazolamBenzodiazepines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • AlteplaseThrombolytics (fibrinolytics) · Plasminogen (the zymogen of plasmin), bound to fibrin
  • Aluminium hydroxideAntacids · Gastric acid (H⁺) in the stomach lumen
  • AmantadineDopaminergic antiparkinson agents (levodopa and amantadine) · NMDA glutamate receptor (channel pore)
  • AmfetamineADHD medicines · Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) and the dopamine and noradrenaline transporters
  • AmifostineChemotherapy supportive agents · Normal tissue (thiol protection against cisplatin and radiation injury)
  • AmikacinAminoglycosides · Decoding (A) site of the bacterial 16S rRNA, 30S ribosomal subunit
  • AmiloridePotassium-sparing diuretics · Epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) of the collecting duct
  • Aminocaproic acidAntifibrinolytic haemostatics · Lysine-binding sites (kringle domains) of plasminogen
  • Aminosalicylic acidAntituberculosis drugs · Folate pathway of M. tuberculosis (acts downstream of dihydropteroate synthase)
  • AmitriptylineTricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) · Norepinephrine transporter (NET) and serotonin transporter (SERT)
  • AmlodipineCalcium channel blockers · L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (CaV1.2)
  • AmoxicillinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • Amoxicillin + clavulanic acidBeta-lactams · Bacterial PBPs (amoxicillin) and β-lactamases (clavulanic acid)
  • Amphotericin BPolyene antifungals · Ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane (a sterol, not a protein)
  • AmpicillinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • Ampicillin + sulbactamBeta-lactams · Bacterial PBPs (ampicillin) and β-lactamases (sulbactam)
  • AnakinraInterleukin inhibitors · Interleukin-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1R1)
  • AnastrozoleAromatase inhibitors · Aromatase (CYP19A1)
  • Andexanet alfaAnticoagulant reversal agents · Factor Xa inhibitors (apixaban, rivaroxaban), which it captures
  • AnsuvimabEbola monoclonal antibodies · Zaire ebolavirus surface glycoprotein (GP)
  • Anti-D immunoglobulin (Rho(D))Immunoglobulins and antitoxins · RhD antigen on fetal red cells
  • ApixabanDirect oral anticoagulants (DOACs) · Coagulation factor Xa
  • AprepitantNK1 receptor antagonists · Tachykinin receptor 1 (NK1, substance P receptor)
  • ArgatrobanParenteral direct thrombin inhibitors · Thrombin (coagulation factor IIa)
  • AripiprazoleSecond-generation antipsychotics · Dopamine D2 receptor (partial agonist); serotonin 5-HT1A receptor shown
  • AtazanavirHIV protease inhibitors (PIs) · HIV-1 protease
  • AtenololBeta blockers · β1-adrenergic receptor
  • Atoltivimab + maftivimab + odesivimabEbola monoclonal antibodies · Zaire ebolavirus surface glycoprotein (GP)
  • AtomoxetineADHD medicines · Noradrenaline transporter (NET)
  • AtorvastatinStatins · HMG-CoA reductase
  • AtracuriumNeuromuscular blockers · Muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (motor end plate)
  • AtropineAntimuscarinics (anticholinergics) · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1 to M5)
  • AzathioprineAntiproliferative immunosuppressants · Purine synthesis, through thioguanine nucleotides
  • AzithromycinMacrolides · Bacterial ribosome, 50S subunit (23S rRNA, exit tunnel)
  • AztreonamMonobactams · Penicillin-binding protein 3 of gram-negative bacteria
  • Baloxavir marboxilAnti-influenza agents · Cap-dependent endonuclease of the influenza polymerase (PA subunit)
  • BaricitinibJAK inhibitors · Janus kinases JAK1 and JAK2
  • BasiliximabOther immunomodulating biologics · IL-2 receptor alpha chain (CD25)
  • BCG vaccine (bacille Calmette-Guérin)Bacterial and antimalarial vaccines · Cell-mediated immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  • BeclometasoneInhaled corticosteroids · Glucocorticoid receptor
  • BedaquilineAntituberculosis drugs · ATP synthase, subunit c (M. tuberculosis)
  • BelimumabOther immunomodulating biologics · B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS, also called BAFF)
  • Benzathine benzylpenicillinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial DD-transpeptidases)
  • BenzatropineAntiparkinson anticholinergics · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1 shown)
  • BenznidazoleAntitrypanosomals · Trypanosoma cruzi type I nitroreductase (activates the prodrug)
  • BenzocaineLocal anesthetics · Voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav)
  • Benzylpenicillin (penicillin G)Beta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial DD-transpeptidases)
  • BetamethasoneCorticosteroids (glucocorticoids) · Glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a nuclear receptor
  • BethanecholMuscarinic (cholinergic) agonists · Muscarinic M3 receptor of the bladder detrusor
  • BicalutamideAntiandrogens and androgen synthesis inhibitors · Androgen receptor (AR)
  • BictegravirIntegrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) · HIV integrase (intasome)
  • BiperidenAntiparkinson anticholinergics · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1 shown)
  • BisacodylLaxatives · Enteric nervous system and colonic mucosa
  • Bismuth subsalicylateMucosal protectants (sucralfate and bismuth) · Gut mucosa and microbes (local action)
  • BisoprololBeta blockers · β1-adrenergic receptor
  • BivalirudinParenteral direct thrombin inhibitors · Thrombin (coagulation factor IIa)
  • BleomycinAntitumour antibiotics · DNA (oxidative strand cleavage)
  • BromocriptineDopamine agonists · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • BudesonideInhaled corticosteroids · Glucocorticoid receptor
  • Budesonide + formoterolInhaled corticosteroids · Glucocorticoid receptor (budesonide) and beta-2 adrenergic receptor (formoterol)
  • BumetanideLoop diuretics · Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl⁻ cotransporter (NKCC2) of the loop of Henle
  • BupivacaineLocal anesthetics · Voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav)
  • BuprenorphineOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor (partial agonist; also acts at κ, δ and nociceptin receptors)
  • BupropionAtypical antidepressants · Norepinephrine transporter (NET) and dopamine transporter (DAT)
  • BuspironeOther anxiolytics · Serotonin 5-HT1A receptor
  • ButorphanolOpioids and antagonists · κ (agonist) and μ (partial agonist) opioid receptors
  • CabergolineDopamine agonists · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • CabotegravirIntegrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) · HIV integrase (intasome)
  • Calcium carbonateAntacids · Gastric acid (H⁺) in the stomach lumen
  • Calcium chlorideElectrolytes and rehydration solutions · Calcium ions: membranes of heart, nerve and muscle (no single receptor)
  • Calcium folinateChemotherapy supportive agents · Reduced-folate pool (bypasses dihydrofolate reductase)
  • Calcium gluconateElectrolytes and rehydration solutions · Calcium ions: membranes of heart, nerve and muscle (no single receptor)
  • CanagliflozinSGLT2 inhibitors (gliflozins) · Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2)
  • CandesartanAngiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) · Angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor
  • CaptoprilACE inhibitors · Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
  • CarbamazepineAntiseizure medicines · Voltage-gated sodium channel (Nav)
  • CarbimazoleAntithyroid agents · Thyroid peroxidase (TPO), through methimazole
  • CarboplatinPlatinum compounds · DNA (N7 of guanine)
  • CarboprostProstaglandin analogues (obstetric use) · Prostaglandin F2α receptor (FP)
  • CarvedilolBeta blockers · β- and α1-adrenergic receptors
  • CaspofunginEchinocandins · β-1,3-D-glucan synthase (Fks1 catalytic subunit)
  • CefalexinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • CefazolinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • CefepimeBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • CefiderocolBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins, mainly PBP3
  • CefiximeBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2) and other PBPs
  • CefotaximeBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • CefoxitinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • CeftarolineBeta-lactams · MRSA PBP2a and other PBPs
  • CeftazidimeBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins, mainly PBP3
  • Ceftazidime + avibactamBeta-lactams · Bacterial PBPs (ceftazidime) and class A, C and some class D β-lactamases (avibactam)
  • Ceftolozane + tazobactamBeta-lactams · Bacterial PBPs (ceftolozane) and β-lactamases (tazobactam)
  • CeftriaxoneBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2) and other PBPs
  • CefuroximeBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding protein 2x (PBP2x) and other PBPs
  • CelecoxibNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) · Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2)
  • Certolizumab pegolTNF inhibitors · Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)
  • CevimelineMuscarinic (cholinergic) agonists · Muscarinic M1 and M3 receptors
  • ChloramphenicolOther antibacterials · Bacterial ribosome, 50S subunit (peptidyl transferase centre)
  • ChlordiazepoxideBenzodiazepines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • ChlorothiazideThiazide and thiazide-like diuretics · Na⁺-Cl⁻ cotransporter (NCC) of the distal convoluted tubule
  • ChlorpromazineFirst-generation antipsychotics · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • ChlortalidoneThiazide and thiazide-like diuretics · Na⁺-Cl⁻ cotransporter (NCC) of the distal convoluted tubule
  • CiclosporinCalcineurin inhibitors · Calcineurin, through cyclophilin A
  • CidofovirAnti-herpesvirus agents · Viral DNA polymerase (CMV)
  • CilostazolAntiplatelet drugs · Phosphodiesterase 3 (PDE3)
  • CimetidineH2 receptor antagonists (H2 blockers) · Histamine H2 receptor
  • CiprofloxacinFluoroquinolones · Bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV
  • CisatracuriumNeuromuscular blockers · Muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (motor end plate)
  • CisplatinPlatinum compounds · DNA (N7 of adjacent guanines)
  • CitalopramSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) · Serotonin transporter (SERT)
  • ClarithromycinMacrolides · Bacterial ribosome, 50S subunit (23S rRNA, exit tunnel)
  • ClindamycinLincosamides · Bacterial ribosome, 50S subunit (23S rRNA, peptidyl transferase centre)
  • ClobazamAntiseizure medicines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • ClobetasolCorticosteroids (glucocorticoids) · Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in skin cells
  • ClofazimineAntileprosy drugs · Mycobacterial membrane and respiratory chain (several actions)
  • ClomifeneSelective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) · Oestrogen receptor alpha (ERα)
  • ClomipramineTricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) · Serotonin transporter (SERT)
  • ClonazepamBenzodiazepines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • ClonidineCentrally acting antihypertensives · Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor
  • ClopidogrelAntiplatelet drugs · P2Y12 ADP receptor on platelets
  • ClotrimazoleAzole antifungals · Lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51, the fungal ERG11 enzyme)
  • CloxacillinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • ClozapineSecond-generation antipsychotics · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • Coagulation factor IXCoagulation factor replacement and haemophilia agents · Factor IX itself (the serine protease of the tenase complex)
  • Coagulation factor VIIICoagulation factor replacement and haemophilia agents · Factor VIII itself (cofactor of factor IXa in the tenase complex)
  • CocaineLocal anesthetics · Monoamine transporters (dopamine and noradrenaline transporters) and sodium channels
  • CodeineOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor (through the morphine it forms)
  • ColchicineOther antigout agents · β-tubulin (microtubules)
  • ColesevelamBile acid sequestrants · Bile acids in the gut lumen
  • ColestyramineBile acid sequestrants · Bile acids in the gut lumen
  • Colistin (colistimethate)Polymyxins · Lipid A of the lipopolysaccharide, gram-negative outer membrane
  • CyanocobalaminAntianaemia agents (iron, folic acid, vitamin B12) · Gastric intrinsic factor (absorption) and the B12-dependent enzymes
  • CycloserineAntituberculosis drugs · Alanine racemase and D-alanine–D-alanine ligase
  • CytisineSmoking cessation medicines · Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α4β2
  • DabigatranDirect oral anticoagulants (DOACs) · Thrombin (coagulation factor IIa)
  • DactinomycinAntitumour antibiotics · DNA (guanine–cytosine steps); blocks RNA polymerase
  • DalbavancinGlycopeptides · D-Ala–D-Ala terminus of the peptidoglycan precursor
  • DalteparinHeparins · Antithrombin (and through it, mainly factor Xa)
  • DapagliflozinSGLT2 inhibitors (gliflozins) · Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2)
  • DapsoneAntileprosy drugs · Dihydropteroate synthase (folate pathway of mycobacteria)
  • DaptomycinLipopeptides · Cytoplasmic membrane of gram-positive bacteria
  • Darbepoetin alfaErythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) · Erythropoietin receptor (EPOR) on erythroid progenitors
  • DarunavirHIV protease inhibitors (PIs) · HIV-1 protease
  • DaunorubicinAntitumour antibiotics · Topoisomerase IIα (and DNA, by intercalation)
  • DeferoxamineChelating agents · Free iron and iron in ferritin and haemosiderin
  • DegarelixGnRH analogues (agonists and antagonists) · Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (GnRH-R)
  • DelamanidAntituberculosis drugs · Deazaflavin-dependent nitroreductase Ddn (activating enzyme)
  • DemeclocyclineTetracyclines · Bacterial ribosome, 30S subunit (16S rRNA, A site)
  • Dengue vaccineViral vaccines · Dengue virus envelope protein (E)
  • DesfluraneInhaled anaesthetics · Several central nervous system ion channels (GABA-A receptors, potassium channels)
  • DesmopressinVasopressin and its analogues · Vasopressin V2 receptor
  • DeutetrabenazineVMAT2 inhibitors · Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2)
  • DexamethasoneCorticosteroids (glucocorticoids) · Glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a nuclear receptor
  • DexmedetomidineIntravenous anaesthetics · Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor
  • DexrazoxaneChemotherapy supportive agents · Topoisomerase II (catalytic inhibitor) and intracellular iron
  • DiazepamBenzodiazepines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • DiazoxideDrugs that raise blood glucose · Sulfonylurea receptor 1 (SUR1) of the KATP channel
  • DiclofenacNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) · Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), also acting on COX-1
  • DicloxacillinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • DicycloverineAntimuscarinics (anticholinergics) · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors of gut smooth muscle
  • DigoxinCardiac glycosides · Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (sodium-potassium pump)
  • Digoxin immune FabSpecific antidotes · Digoxin itself (and other cardiac glycosides)
  • DiltiazemCalcium channel blockers · L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (CaV1.2)
  • DimercaprolChelating agents · Heavy-metal ions (arsenic, mercury, lead)
  • Diphenoxylate and atropineAntidiarrhoeals · μ-opioid receptors of the gut wall
  • Diphtheria antitoxin (equine)Immunoglobulins and antitoxins · Circulating diphtheria toxin
  • Diphtheria vaccine (diphtheria toxoid)Bacterial and antimalarial vaccines · Immune response against diphtheria toxin
  • DipyridamoleAntiplatelet drugs · Equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 (adenosine uptake), and phosphodiesterases
  • DisulfiramMedicines for alcohol use disorder · Aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2)
  • DobutamineVasopressors and inotropes · Beta-1 adrenergic receptor
  • DocetaxelMicrotubule inhibitors · β-tubulin (taxane site, inside the microtubule)
  • Docusate sodiumLaxatives · Stool surface (surfactant action) and intestinal mucosa
  • DolutegravirIntegrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) · HIV integrase (intasome)
  • Dolutegravir + lamivudine + tenofovir disoproxil (TLD)Fixed-dose antiretroviral combinations · HIV integrase (intasome)
  • DomperidoneDopamine-antagonist antiemetics and prokinetics · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • DonepezilCholinesterase inhibitors · Acetylcholinesterase
  • DopamineVasopressors and inotropes · Dopamine D1 receptor (also beta-1 and alpha-1 adrenergic receptors)
  • DoravirineNon-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (NNRTI pocket)
  • DoxazosinAlpha blockers · Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors
  • DoxorubicinAntitumour antibiotics · Topoisomerase IIα (and DNA, by intercalation)
  • DoxycyclineTetracyclines · Bacterial ribosome, 30S subunit (16S rRNA, A site)
  • DronabinolCannabinoids (medical antiemetics and appetite stimulants) · Cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1)
  • DulaglutideGLP-1 receptor agonists · GLP-1 receptor (GLP1R)
  • DuloxetineSerotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) · Serotonin transporter (SERT) and norepinephrine transporter (NET)
  • EdaravoneNeuroprotective agents for ALS · Free radicals (oxidative stress)
  • EdoxabanDirect oral anticoagulants (DOACs) · Coagulation factor Xa
  • EdrophoniumCholinesterase inhibitors · Acetylcholinesterase
  • EfavirenzNon-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (NNRTI pocket)
  • EltrombopagThrombopoietin receptor agonists · Thrombopoietin receptor (MPL, c-Mpl) on megakaryocytes
  • EmicizumabCoagulation factor replacement and haemophilia agents · Factor IXa and factor X (bridged by the antibody)
  • EmpagliflozinSGLT2 inhibitors (gliflozins) · Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2)
  • EmtricitabineNucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
  • EnalaprilACE inhibitors · Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
  • EnfuvirtideHIV entry inhibitors · HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp41
  • EnoxaparinHeparins · Antithrombin (and through it, mainly factor Xa)
  • EntacaponeCOMT inhibitors · Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)
  • EntecavirHepatitis B antivirals · Hepatitis B virus polymerase (reverse transcriptase)
  • EnzalutamideAntiandrogens and androgen synthesis inhibitors · Androgen receptor (AR)
  • EphedrineVasopressors and inotropes · Alpha and beta adrenergic receptors, plus release of stored norepinephrine
  • EpinephrineVasopressors and inotropes · Alpha and beta adrenergic receptors (beta-2 shown)
  • EpirubicinAntitumour antibiotics · Topoisomerase IIα (and DNA, by intercalation)
  • EplerenonePotassium-sparing diuretics · Mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) receptor
  • Epoetin alfaErythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) · Erythropoietin receptor (EPOR) on erythroid progenitors
  • EptifibatideAntiplatelet drugs · Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (integrin αIIbβ3)
  • ErgometrineErgot alkaloids · Serotonin 5-HT2 and alpha-adrenergic receptors of the myometrium
  • ErgotamineErgot alkaloids · Serotonin 5-HT1B/1D receptors (and alpha-adrenergic receptors)
  • ErtapenemCarbapenems · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • ErythromycinMacrolides · Bacterial ribosome, 50S subunit (23S rRNA, exit tunnel)
  • EscitalopramSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) · Serotonin transporter (SERT)
  • EsmololBeta blockers · β1-adrenergic receptor
  • EsomeprazoleProton pump inhibitors (PPIs) · Gastric H⁺/K⁺-ATPase (proton pump), α subunit
  • EszopicloneZ-drug hypnotics · GABA-A receptor (α1-containing), benzodiazepine site
  • Etacrynic acidLoop diuretics · Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl⁻ cotransporter (NKCC2) of the loop of Henle
  • EtanerceptTNF inhibitors · Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)
  • EthambutolAntituberculosis drugs · Arabinosyltransferase EmbB (M. tuberculosis)
  • Ethinylestradiol + levonorgestrelHormonal contraceptives · Progesterone receptor (PGR) and estrogen receptor
  • EthionamideAntituberculosis drugs · Enoyl-ACP reductase InhA (M. tuberculosis)
  • EthosuximideAntiseizure medicines · T-type calcium channel (Cav3)
  • EtomidateIntravenous anaesthetics · GABA-A receptor (α1β2γ2)
  • EtoposideTopoisomerase inhibitors · DNA topoisomerase IIα
  • EverolimusmTOR inhibitors · mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin), through FKBP12
  • EvolocumabPCSK9 inhibitors · PCSK9 (circulating protein)
  • ExemestaneAromatase inhibitors · Aromatase (CYP19A1)
  • ExenatideGLP-1 receptor agonists · GLP-1 receptor (GLP1R)
  • EzetimibeCholesterol absorption inhibitors · NPC1L1 sterol transporter
  • FamciclovirAnti-herpesvirus agents · Viral thymidine kinase (activation) and viral DNA polymerase
  • FamotidineH2 receptor antagonists (H2 blockers) · Histamine H2 receptor
  • FebuxostatXanthine oxidase inhibitors · Xanthine oxidase
  • FelbamateAntiseizure medicines · NMDA receptor, glycine site (GluN1)
  • FenofibrateFibrates · PPARα (nuclear receptor)
  • FentanylOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • Ferrous sulfateAntianaemia agents (iron, folic acid, vitamin B12) · Transferrin, the plasma iron carrier (iron is built into haemoglobin)
  • FilgrastimMyeloid colony-stimulating factors · Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor receptor (G-CSFR)
  • FlucloxacillinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • FluconazoleAzole antifungals · Lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51, the fungal ERG11 enzyme)
  • FlucytosineOther antifungals · Fungal RNA and thymidylate synthase, through its metabolite fluorouracil
  • FludrocortisoneCorticosteroids (glucocorticoids) · Mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), a nuclear receptor
  • FlumazenilSpecific antidotes · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site (α1/γ2 interface)
  • FluorouracilAntimetabolites · Thymidylate synthase
  • FluoxetineSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) · Serotonin transporter (SERT)
  • FlutamideAntiandrogens and androgen synthesis inhibitors · Androgen receptor (AR)
  • FluticasoneInhaled corticosteroids · Glucocorticoid receptor
  • FluvastatinStatins · HMG-CoA reductase
  • Folic acidAntianaemia agents (iron, folic acid, vitamin B12) · Dihydrofolate reductase (activates folic acid)
  • FomepizoleSpecific antidotes · Alcohol dehydrogenase
  • FondaparinuxHeparins · Antithrombin (and through it, factor Xa only)
  • FormoterolBeta-2 adrenergic agonists · Beta-2 adrenergic receptor
  • FosaprepitantNK1 receptor antagonists · Tachykinin receptor 1 (NK1, substance P receptor)
  • FoscarnetAnti-herpesvirus agents · Viral DNA polymerase (pyrophosphate-binding site)
  • FosfomycinUrinary antiseptics · UDP-N-acetylglucosamine enolpyruvyl transferase (MurA)
  • FosphenytoinAntiseizure medicines · Voltage-gated sodium channel (Nav), through phenytoin
  • FurosemideLoop diuretics · Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl⁻ cotransporter (NKCC2) of the loop of Henle
  • GabapentinGabapentinoids · α2δ-1 subunit of voltage-gated calcium channels
  • GalantamineCholinesterase inhibitors · Acetylcholinesterase
  • GanciclovirAnti-herpesvirus agents · CMV DNA polymerase (activated by the viral UL97 kinase)
  • GemfibrozilFibrates · PPARα (nuclear receptor)
  • GentamicinAminoglycosides · Decoding (A) site of the bacterial 16S rRNA, 30S ribosomal subunit
  • Glecaprevir + pibrentasvirHepatitis C direct-acting antivirals · Hepatitis C virus NS3/4A protease (glecaprevir) and NS5A protein (pibrentasvir)
  • GlibenclamideSulfonylureas · Sulfonylurea receptor 1 (SUR1) of the KATP channel
  • GliclazideSulfonylureas · Sulfonylurea receptor 1 (SUR1) of the KATP channel
  • GlimepirideSulfonylureas · Sulfonylurea receptor 1 (SUR1) of the KATP channel
  • GlipizideSulfonylureas · Sulfonylurea receptor 1 (SUR1) of the KATP channel
  • GlucagonDrugs that raise blood glucose · Glucagon receptor (GCGR)
  • GlycopyrroniumAntimuscarinics (anticholinergics) · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1 to M5)
  • GolimumabTNF inhibitors · Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)
  • GoserelinGnRH analogues (agonists and antagonists) · Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (GnRH-R)
  • Granisetron5-HT3 receptor antagonists (setrons) · Serotonin 5-HT3A receptor
  • GriseofulvinOther antifungals · Fungal microtubules (tubulin)
  • Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccineBacterial and antimalarial vaccines · Immune response against the Hib capsule (polyribosyl-ribitol-phosphate, PRP)
  • HaloperidolFirst-generation antipsychotics · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • HalothaneInhaled anaesthetics · Several central nervous system ion channels (GABA-A receptors, potassium channels)
  • HeparinHeparins · Antithrombin
  • Hepatitis A vaccineViral vaccines · Hepatitis A virus capsid
  • Hepatitis B vaccineViral vaccines · Hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg)
  • Human albuminPlasma volume expanders (colloids) · Plasma oncotic pressure (albumin itself)
  • Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccineViral vaccines · HPV major capsid protein L1
  • Human tetanus immunoglobulinImmunoglobulins and antitoxins · Free tetanospasmin (tetanus toxin)
  • HydralazineDirect vasodilators · Arteriolar smooth muscle (molecular target not fully established)
  • HydrochlorothiazideThiazide and thiazide-like diuretics · Na⁺-Cl⁻ cotransporter (NCC) of the distal convoluted tubule
  • HydrocodoneOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • HydrocortisoneCorticosteroids (glucocorticoids) · Glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a nuclear receptor
  • HydromorphoneOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • HydroxocobalaminAntianaemia agents (iron, folic acid, vitamin B12) · Methionine synthase (B12 coenzyme); free cyanide in poisoning
  • HydroxychloroquineConventional disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) · Acidic intracellular vesicles (lysosomes; the malaria parasite's food vacuole)
  • Hyoscine butylbromideAntimuscarinics (anticholinergics) · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors of smooth muscle (mainly M3)
  • Hyoscine hydrobromide (scopolamine)Antimuscarinics (anticholinergics) · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1 to M5)
  • IbuprofenNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) · Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1/COX-2)
  • IdarubicinAntitumour antibiotics · Topoisomerase IIα (and DNA, by intercalation)
  • IdarucizumabAnticoagulant reversal agents · Dabigatran (binds the drug itself)
  • Imipenem–cilastatinCarbapenems · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • IndapamideThiazide and thiazide-like diuretics · Na⁺-Cl⁻ cotransporter (NCC) of the distal convoluted tubule
  • IndometacinNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) · Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1/COX-2)
  • InfliximabTNF inhibitors · Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)
  • Influenza vaccineViral vaccines · Influenza haemagglutinin (HA)
  • Insulin aspartInsulins · Insulin receptor
  • Insulin degludecInsulins · Insulin receptor
  • Insulin detemirInsulins · Insulin receptor
  • Insulin glargineInsulins · Insulin receptor
  • Insulin glulisineInsulins · Insulin receptor
  • Insulin lisproInsulins · Insulin receptor
  • Interferon alfaInterferons · Type I interferon receptor (IFNAR1/IFNAR2)
  • Interferon betaInterferons · Type I interferon receptor (IFNAR1/IFNAR2)
  • Interferon gammaInterferons · Interferon gamma receptor (IFNGR1/IFNGR2)
  • Ipratropium bromideInhaled antimuscarinics · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M3
  • IrbesartanAngiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) · Angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor
  • IrinotecanTopoisomerase inhibitors · DNA topoisomerase I
  • Iron sucroseAntianaemia agents (iron, folic acid, vitamin B12) · Transferrin, the plasma iron carrier (iron is built into haemoglobin)
  • IsavuconazoleAzole antifungals · Lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51, the fungal ERG11 enzyme)
  • IsofluraneInhaled anaesthetics · Several central nervous system ion channels (GABA-A and glycine receptors, potassium channels)
  • IsoniazidAntituberculosis drugs · Enoyl-ACP reductase InhA (M. tuberculosis)
  • Isophane (NPH) insulinInsulins · Insulin receptor
  • IsoprenalineVasopressors and inotropes · Beta-1 and beta-2 adrenergic receptors
  • ItraconazoleAzole antifungals · Lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51, the fungal ERG11 enzyme)
  • IvermectinAnthelmintics · Nematode glutamate-gated chloride channel (GluCl)
  • KetamineIntravenous anaesthetics · NMDA glutamate receptor (GluN1/GluN2)
  • KetoconazoleAzole antifungals · Lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51, the fungal ERG11 enzyme)
  • KetorolacNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) · Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1/COX-2)
  • LabetalolBeta blockers · β- and α1-adrenergic receptors
  • LacosamideAntiseizure medicines · Voltage-gated sodium channel (Nav)
  • LactuloseLaxatives · Colonic contents (osmotic effect and ammonia trapping by colonic bacteria)
  • LamivudineNucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
  • LamotrigineAntiseizure medicines · Voltage-gated sodium channel (Nav)
  • LansoprazoleProton pump inhibitors (PPIs) · Gastric H⁺/K⁺-ATPase (proton pump), α subunit
  • Ledipasvir + sofosbuvirHepatitis C direct-acting antivirals · Hepatitis C virus NS5A protein (ledipasvir) and NS5B polymerase (sofosbuvir)
  • LeflunomideConventional disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) · Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH)
  • LetrozoleAromatase inhibitors · Aromatase (CYP19A1)
  • LeuprorelinGnRH analogues (agonists and antagonists) · Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (GnRH-R)
  • LevetiracetamAntiseizure medicines · Synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A (SV2A)
  • Levodopa + benserazideDopaminergic antiparkinson agents (levodopa and amantadine) · Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (DOPA decarboxylase)
  • Levodopa + carbidopaDopaminergic antiparkinson agents (levodopa and amantadine) · Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (DOPA decarboxylase)
  • LevofloxacinFluoroquinolones · Bacterial topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase
  • LevonorgestrelHormonal contraceptives · Progesterone receptor (PGR)
  • LevosimendanVasopressors and inotropes · Cardiac troponin C (calcium sensitiser); also ATP-sensitive potassium channels
  • LevothyroxineThyroid hormones · Thyroid hormone receptor β (and α)
  • LidocaineLocal anesthetics · Voltage-gated sodium channel (Nav; in the heart, Nav1.5)
  • LinaclotideLaxatives · Guanylate cyclase C (GC-C) on the luminal surface of intestinal cells
  • LinagliptinDPP-4 inhibitors (gliptins) · Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4)
  • LinezolidOxazolidinones · Peptidyl-transferase centre of the 23S rRNA, 50S ribosomal subunit
  • LiothyronineThyroid hormones · Thyroid hormone receptor β (and α)
  • LiraglutideGLP-1 receptor agonists · GLP-1 receptor (GLP1R)
  • LisinoprilACE inhibitors · Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
  • Lithium carbonateMood stabilizers · Inositol monophosphatase and GSK-3 (proposed)
  • LoperamideAntidiarrhoeals · μ-opioid receptor of the myenteric plexus
  • Lopinavir/ritonavirHIV protease inhibitors (PIs) · HIV-1 protease
  • LorazepamBenzodiazepines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • LosartanAngiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) · Angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor
  • LovastatinStatins · HMG-CoA reductase
  • LubiprostoneLaxatives · ClC-2 chloride channel on the apical membrane of intestinal cells
  • Macrogol (polyethylene glycol)Laxatives · Colonic lumen (osmotic water retention)
  • Magnesium hydroxideAntacids · Gastric acid (H⁺) in the stomach lumen; water in the bowel
  • Magnesium sulfateElectrolytes and rehydration solutions · Calcium entry at the nerve terminal and NMDA-type channels (no single receptor)
  • MannitolOsmotic diuretics · No protein target: osmotic effect in plasma and tubular fluid
  • MaravirocHIV entry inhibitors · Human CCR5 chemokine receptor
  • Measles vaccineViral vaccines · Measles virus haemagglutinin (H protein)
  • MebendazoleAnthelmintics · Helminth β-tubulin (colchicine site)
  • Meglumine antimoniateAntileishmanials · Leishmania trypanothione reductase (and the parasite's thiols)
  • MelatoninOther hypnotics (melatonin agonists and orexin antagonists) · Melatonin receptor MT1
  • MeloxicamNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) · Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), also acting on COX-1
  • MemantineNMDA receptor antagonists (anti-dementia) · NMDA glutamate receptor (channel pore)
  • Meningococcal vaccineBacterial and antimalarial vaccines · Immune response against Neisseria meningitidis
  • MeropenemCarbapenems · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • Meropenem–vaborbactamCarbapenems · KPC carbapenemase (vaborbactam) and penicillin-binding proteins (meropenem)
  • MesalazineAminosalicylates (5-ASA) · Colonic mucosa (local anti-inflammatory action)
  • MesnaChemotherapy supportive agents · Acrolein and other urotoxic ifosfamide metabolites (in urine)
  • MetamizoleNon-opioid analgesic antipyretics · Active metabolites that reduce prostaglandin-driven hyperalgesia (mechanism not fully established)
  • MetforminBiguanides · Mitochondrial respiratory chain, complex I
  • MethacholineMuscarinic (cholinergic) agonists · Muscarinic M3 receptor of airway smooth muscle
  • MethadoneOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • MethenamineUrinary antiseptics · Bacterial proteins and nucleic acids in the urine (via formaldehyde)
  • MethimazoleAntithyroid agents · Thyroid peroxidase (TPO)
  • MethotrexateAntimetabolites · Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR)
  • MethyldopaCentrally acting antihypertensives · Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor (through alpha-methylnorepinephrine)
  • MethylergometrineErgot alkaloids · Serotonin 5-HT2 and alpha-adrenergic receptors of the myometrium
  • MethylnaltrexoneLaxatives · μ-opioid receptors of the gut (peripheral)
  • MethylphenidateADHD medicines · Dopamine transporter (DAT)
  • MethylprednisoloneCorticosteroids (glucocorticoids) · Glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a nuclear receptor
  • Methylthioninium chloride (methylene blue)Specific antidotes · Methaemoglobin, through NADPH-dependent reduction
  • MetoclopramideDopamine-antagonist antiemetics and prokinetics · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • MetolazoneThiazide and thiazide-like diuretics · Na⁺-Cl⁻ cotransporter (NCC) of the distal convoluted tubule
  • MetoprololBeta blockers · β1-adrenergic receptor
  • MetronidazoleNitroimidazoles · DNA of anaerobic bacteria and protozoa (after reduction of the nitro group)
  • MetyraponeAdrenal steroid synthesis inhibitors · Steroid 11β-hydroxylase (CYP11B1)
  • MicafunginEchinocandins · β-1,3-D-glucan synthase (Fks1 catalytic subunit)
  • MiconazoleAzole antifungals · Lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51, the fungal ERG11 enzyme)
  • MidazolamBenzodiazepines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • MidodrineVasopressors and inotropes · Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors (through desglymidodrine)
  • MifepristoneAntiprogestogens (progesterone receptor modulators) · Progesterone receptor (PGR); also glucocorticoid receptor
  • MilrinoneVasopressors and inotropes · Phosphodiesterase 3 (PDE3)
  • MiltefosineAntileishmanials · Leishmania membrane lipids and signalling
  • MinocyclineTetracyclines · Bacterial ribosome, 30S subunit (16S rRNA, A site)
  • MinoxidilDirect vasodilators · ATP-sensitive potassium channel of vascular smooth muscle (SUR2 subunit)
  • MirabegronOveractive bladder agents · Beta-3 adrenergic receptor
  • MirtazapineAtypical antidepressants · Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor (also 5-HT2, 5-HT3 and H1 receptors)
  • MisoprostolProstaglandin analogues (obstetric use) · Prostaglandin E receptor EP3 (and other EP receptors)
  • MitomycinAntitumour antibiotics · DNA (cross-links at guanine and adenine)
  • MontelukastLeukotriene modifiers · Cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 1 (CysLT1)
  • MorphineOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • MoxifloxacinFluoroquinolones · Bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV
  • Mumps vaccineViral vaccines · Mumps virus haemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN)
  • Mycophenolate mofetilAntiproliferative immunosuppressants · Inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH)
  • NafcillinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • NalbuphineOpioids and antagonists · κ (agonist) and μ (antagonist) opioid receptors
  • NaloxoneOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • NaltrexoneOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor (antagonist)
  • NaproxenNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) · Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1/COX-2)
  • NebivololBeta blockers · β1-adrenergic receptor
  • NeomycinAminoglycosides · Decoding (A) site of the bacterial 16S rRNA, 30S ribosomal subunit
  • NeostigmineCholinesterase inhibitors · Acetylcholinesterase
  • NevirapineNon-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (NNRTI pocket)
  • NicardipineCalcium channel blockers · L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (CaV1.2)
  • Nicotine (replacement therapy)Smoking cessation medicines · Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α4β2
  • Nicotinic acid (niacin)Nicotinic acid and derivatives · Niacin receptor HCA2 (GPR109A)
  • NifedipineCalcium channel blockers · L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (CaV1.2)
  • NifurtimoxAntitrypanosomals · Trypanosoma cruzi nitroreductase (activates the prodrug)
  • NimodipineCalcium channel blockers · L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (CaV1.2)
  • Nirmatrelvir + ritonavirOther antivirals · SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro, 3CL protease)
  • NitrofurantoinUrinary antiseptics · Bacterial ribosomal proteins and other macromolecules (after reduction by bacterial flavoproteins)
  • Nitrous oxideInhaled anaesthetics · NMDA glutamate receptor (and two-pore-domain potassium channels)
  • NorepinephrineVasopressors and inotropes · Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor (also beta-1)
  • Normal human immunoglobulin (IVIG)Immunoglobulins and antitoxins · Broad repertoire of antigens and Fc receptors
  • NystatinPolyene antifungals · Ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane (a sterol, not a protein)
  • OctreotideSomatostatin analogues · Somatostatin receptor type 2 (SSTR2), and SSTR5
  • OfloxacinFluoroquinolones · Bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV
  • OlanzapineSecond-generation antipsychotics · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • OmeprazoleProton pump inhibitors (PPIs) · Gastric H⁺/K⁺-ATPase (proton pump), α subunit
  • Ondansetron5-HT3 receptor antagonists (setrons) · Serotonin 5-HT3A receptor
  • Oral rehydration saltsElectrolytes and rehydration solutions · Sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) of the small intestine
  • OrlistatAnti-obesity drugs · Pancreatic and gastric lipases
  • OseltamivirAnti-influenza agents · Influenza virus neuraminidase
  • OxacillinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • OxaliplatinPlatinum compounds · DNA (adjacent guanines)
  • OxazepamBenzodiazepines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • OxcarbazepineAntiseizure medicines · Voltage-gated sodium channel (Nav)
  • OxybutyninOveractive bladder agents · Muscarinic M3 receptor of the bladder detrusor
  • OxycodoneOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • OxygenMedical gases · Haemoglobin (transport) and cytochrome c oxidase (use in mitochondria)
  • OxytocinUterotonics (oxytocin and analogues) · Oxytocin receptor (OXTR)
  • PaclitaxelMicrotubule inhibitors · β-tubulin (taxane site, inside the microtubule)
  • Palonosetron5-HT3 receptor antagonists (setrons) · Serotonin 5-HT3A receptor
  • PancuroniumNeuromuscular blockers · Muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (motor end plate)
  • PantoprazoleProton pump inhibitors (PPIs) · Gastric H⁺/K⁺-ATPase (proton pump), α subunit
  • ParacetamolNon-opioid analgesic antipyretics · Cyclooxygenases, mainly in the central nervous system (mechanism not fully established)
  • ParoxetineSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) · Serotonin transporter (SERT)
  • PegfilgrastimMyeloid colony-stimulating factors · Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor receptor (G-CSFR)
  • PegloticaseOther antigout agents · Uric acid (the drug is the enzyme uricase)
  • PentamidineAntitrypanosomals · Several parasite targets (DNA, RNA, phospholipid and protein synthesis)
  • PentazocineOpioids and antagonists · κ (agonist) and μ (partial agonist) opioid receptors
  • PerindoprilACE inhibitors · Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
  • Pertussis vaccineBacterial and antimalarial vaccines · Immune response against Bordetella pertussis and its toxin
  • PethidineOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • PhenelzineMonoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) · Monoamine oxidase A and B
  • PhenobarbitalAntiseizure medicines · GABA-A receptor (α1β2γ2)
  • PhenoxybenzamineAlpha blockers · Alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors (covalent bond)
  • Phenoxymethylpenicillin (penicillin V)Beta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial transpeptidases)
  • PhentolamineAlpha blockers · Alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors
  • PhenylephrineVasopressors and inotropes · Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor
  • PhenytoinAntiseizure medicines · Voltage-gated sodium channel (Nav)
  • PhysostigmineCholinesterase inhibitors · Acetylcholinesterase
  • Phytomenadione (vitamin K1)Anticoagulant reversal agents · Vitamin K-dependent gamma-glutamyl carboxylase (GGCX), which uses vitamin K as its cofactor
  • PilocarpineMuscarinic (cholinergic) agonists · Muscarinic M3 receptor
  • PioglitazoneThiazolidinediones (glitazones) · PPAR-gamma (nuclear receptor)
  • Piperacillin + tazobactamBeta-lactams · Bacterial PBPs, mainly PBP3 (piperacillin), and β-lactamases (tazobactam)
  • PiroxicamNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) · Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1/COX-2)
  • PlazomicinAminoglycosides · Decoding (A) site of the bacterial 16S rRNA, 30S ribosomal subunit
  • Pneumococcal vaccineBacterial and antimalarial vaccines · Immune response against the Streptococcus pneumoniae capsule
  • Poliomyelitis vaccine (IPV and OPV)Viral vaccines · Poliovirus capsid
  • Polymyxin BPolymyxins · Lipid A of the lipopolysaccharide, gram-negative outer membrane
  • Polyvalent coral snake antivenom (Micrurus)Antivenoms · Neurotoxins of Micrurus venom
  • Polyvalent Lonomia antivenomAntivenoms · Procoagulant and fibrinolytic toxins of Lonomia venom
  • Polyvalent snake antivenom (Bothrops and Crotalus)Antivenoms · Toxins of Bothrops and Crotalus venoms
  • PosaconazoleAzole antifungals · Lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51, the fungal ERG11 enzyme)
  • Potassium chlorideElectrolytes and rehydration solutions · Potassium ions: resting membrane potential of heart, nerve and muscle (no single receptor)
  • Potassium iodideAntithyroid agents · Sodium-iodide symporter (NIS) of the thyroid
  • PralidoximeSpecific antidotes · Acetylcholinesterase inhibited by an organophosphate
  • PramipexoleDopamine agonists · Dopamine D3 and D2 receptors (D3 shown)
  • PramlintideOther glucose-lowering drugs · Amylin receptors (calcitonin receptor with RAMP proteins)
  • PrasugrelAntiplatelet drugs · P2Y12 ADP receptor on platelets
  • PravastatinStatins · HMG-CoA reductase
  • PraziquantelAnthelmintics · Schistosome TRPM channel (TRPM_PZQ)
  • PrazosinAlpha blockers · Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors
  • PrednisoloneCorticosteroids (glucocorticoids) · Glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a nuclear receptor
  • PrednisoneCorticosteroids (glucocorticoids) · Glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a nuclear receptor
  • PregabalinGabapentinoids · α2δ-1 subunit of voltage-gated calcium channels
  • PretomanidAntituberculosis drugs · Deazaflavin-dependent nitroreductase Ddn (activating enzyme)
  • ProbenecidOther antigout agents · Urate transporter URAT1 (and organic anion transporters OAT1 and OAT3)
  • ProcaineLocal anesthetics · Voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav)
  • Procaine benzylpenicillinBeta-lactams · Penicillin-binding proteins (bacterial DD-transpeptidases)
  • ProchlorperazineDopamine-antagonist antiemetics and prokinetics · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • PropofolIntravenous anaesthetics · GABA-A receptor (α1β2γ2)
  • PropranololBeta blockers · β-adrenergic receptors (β1 and β2)
  • PropylthiouracilAntithyroid agents · Thyroid peroxidase (TPO)
  • Protamine sulfateAnticoagulant reversal agents · Heparin (binds the drug itself)
  • PyrazinamideAntituberculosis drugs · Aspartate decarboxylase PanD (M. tuberculosis), target of pyrazinoic acid
  • PyridostigmineCholinesterase inhibitors · Acetylcholinesterase
  • QuetiapineSecond-generation antipsychotics · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • Rabies immunoglobulinImmunoglobulins and antitoxins · Rabies virus glycoprotein G
  • Rabies vaccineViral vaccines · Rabies virus glycoprotein (G)
  • RaloxifeneSelective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) · Oestrogen receptor alpha (ERα)
  • RaltegravirIntegrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) · HIV integrase (intasome)
  • RamelteonOther hypnotics (melatonin agonists and orexin antagonists) · Melatonin receptor MT1
  • RamiprilACE inhibitors · Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
  • RasagilineMAO-B inhibitors · Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B)
  • RasburicaseChemotherapy supportive agents · Uric acid (the drug is the enzyme urate oxidase)
  • Regular human insulinInsulins · Insulin receptor
  • RemdesivirOther antivirals · SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (nsp12)
  • RemifentanilOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • RepaglinideOther glucose-lowering drugs · Sulfonylurea receptor 1 (SUR1) of the KATP channel
  • Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccineViral vaccines · RSV fusion glycoprotein (F) in the prefusion conformation
  • ReteplaseThrombolytics (fibrinolytics) · Plasminogen (the zymogen of plasmin), bound to fibrin
  • RibavirinOther antivirals · Inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) and viral RNA polymerase
  • RifabutinAntituberculosis drugs · DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, β subunit
  • RifampicinAntituberculosis drugs · DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, β subunit (M. tuberculosis)
  • RifapentineAntituberculosis drugs · DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, β subunit
  • RifaximinOther antibacterials · Bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, β subunit
  • RilpivirineNon-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (NNRTI pocket)
  • RiluzoleNeuroprotective agents for ALS · Voltage-gated sodium channels and glutamate signalling
  • RisperidoneSecond-generation antipsychotics · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • RitonavirHIV protease inhibitors (PIs) · HIV-1 protease
  • RivaroxabanDirect oral anticoagulants (DOACs) · Coagulation factor Xa
  • RivastigmineCholinesterase inhibitors · Acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase
  • RocuroniumNeuromuscular blockers · Muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (motor end plate)
  • RomiplostimThrombopoietin receptor agonists · Thrombopoietin receptor (MPL, c-Mpl) on megakaryocytes
  • RopiniroleDopamine agonists · Dopamine D2 receptor
  • RopivacaineLocal anesthetics · Voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav)
  • RosiglitazoneThiazolidinediones (glitazones) · PPAR-gamma (nuclear receptor)
  • RosuvastatinStatins · HMG-CoA reductase
  • Rotavirus vaccineViral vaccines · Rotavirus outer capsid protein VP7
  • Rubella vaccineViral vaccines · Rubella virus envelope glycoprotein E1
  • RuxolitinibJAK inhibitors · Janus kinases JAK1 and JAK2
  • Sacubitril/valsartanAngiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors (ARNI) · Neprilysin (neutral endopeptidase)
  • SafinamideMAO-B inhibitors · Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B)
  • SalbutamolBeta-2 adrenergic agonists · Beta-2 adrenergic receptor
  • SalmeterolBeta-2 adrenergic agonists · Beta-2 adrenergic receptor
  • SargramostimMyeloid colony-stimulating factors · GM-CSF receptor (α subunit with the common β chain)
  • SaxagliptinDPP-4 inhibitors (gliptins) · Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4)
  • SecnidazoleNitroimidazoles · DNA of anaerobic bacteria and protozoa (after reduction of the nitro group)
  • SecukinumabInterleukin inhibitors · Interleukin-17A (IL-17A)
  • SelegilineMAO-B inhibitors · Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B)
  • SemaglutideGLP-1 receptor agonists · GLP-1 receptor (GLP1R)
  • SennaLaxatives · Colonic mucosa and enteric nervous system
  • SertralineSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) · Serotonin transporter (SERT)
  • SevofluraneInhaled anaesthetics · Several central nervous system ion channels (GABA-A and glycine receptors, potassium channels)
  • SimvastatinStatins · HMG-CoA reductase
  • SirolimusmTOR inhibitors · mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin), through FKBP12
  • SitagliptinDPP-4 inhibitors (gliptins) · Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4)
  • Sodium calcium edetateChelating agents · Lead (and other divalent metals such as zinc)
  • Sodium hydrogen carbonateElectrolytes and rehydration solutions · Hydrogen ions: bicarbonate buffer of blood and urine (no receptor)
  • Sodium iodide (131I)Antithyroid agents · Sodium-iodide symporter (NIS) of the thyroid
  • Sodium nitriteSpecific antidotes · Haemoglobin (converted to methaemoglobin)
  • Sodium nitroprussideDirect vasodilators · Soluble guanylyl cyclase (activated by the nitric oxide it releases)
  • Sodium polystyrene sulfonatePotassium binders · Potassium ions in the colon lumen (no receptor)
  • Sodium thiosulfateSpecific antidotes · Rhodanese (thiosulfate sulfurtransferase)
  • SofosbuvirHepatitis C direct-acting antivirals · Hepatitis C virus NS5B RNA polymerase
  • Sofosbuvir + velpatasvirHepatitis C direct-acting antivirals · Hepatitis C virus NS5B polymerase (sofosbuvir) and NS5A protein (velpatasvir)
  • SolifenacinOveractive bladder agents · Muscarinic M3 receptor of the bladder detrusor
  • SomatropinGrowth hormone · Growth hormone receptor (GHR)
  • SotalolBeta blockers · hERG potassium channel (IKr) and β-adrenergic receptors
  • SpectinomycinOther antibacterials · Bacterial ribosome, 30S subunit
  • SpironolactonePotassium-sparing diuretics · Mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) receptor
  • StreptokinaseThrombolytics (fibrinolytics) · Plasminogen (streptokinase–plasminogen activator complex)
  • StreptomycinAminoglycosides · 16S rRNA and ribosomal protein S12 of the bacterial 30S subunit
  • SuccimerChelating agents · Lead, arsenic and mercury ions
  • SucralfateMucosal protectants (sucralfate and bismuth) · Proteins of the ulcer base (local physical barrier)
  • SufentanilOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor
  • SugammadexNeuromuscular block reversal agents · Free rocuronium and vecuronium in plasma (it does not act on a receptor)
  • SulfadiazineSulfonamides and trimethoprim · Dihydropteroate synthase (bacterial and Toxoplasma folate pathway)
  • Sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim (co-trimoxazole)Sulfonamides and trimethoprim · Dihydropteroate synthase (sulfamethoxazole) and dihydrofolate reductase (trimethoprim)
  • SulfasalazineAminosalicylates (5-ASA) · Colonic mucosa (5-ASA) and immune cells (anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects)
  • SuvorexantOther hypnotics (melatonin agonists and orexin antagonists) · Orexin receptor type 2 (OX2)
  • SuxamethoniumNeuromuscular blockers · Muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (motor end plate)
  • TacrolimusCalcineurin inhibitors · Calcineurin, through FKBP12
  • TamoxifenSelective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) · Oestrogen receptor alpha (ERα)
  • TamsulosinAlpha blockers · Alpha-1A adrenergic receptor
  • TedizolidOxazolidinones · Peptidyl-transferase centre of the 23S rRNA, 50S ribosomal subunit
  • TelmisartanAngiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) · Angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor
  • TemazepamBenzodiazepines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • TenecteplaseThrombolytics (fibrinolytics) · Plasminogen (the zymogen of plasmin), bound to fibrin
  • Tenofovir alafenamideNucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
  • Tenofovir disoproxilNucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
  • TerazosinAlpha blockers · Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors
  • TerbinafineOther antifungals · Fungal squalene epoxidase (ERG1)
  • TerbutalineBeta-2 adrenergic agonists · Beta-2 adrenergic receptor
  • TerlipressinVasopressin and its analogues · Vasopressin V1a receptor
  • Tetanus vaccine (tetanus toxoid)Bacterial and antimalarial vaccines · Immune response against tetanospasmin (tetanus toxin)
  • TetrabenazineVMAT2 inhibitors · Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2)
  • TetracaineLocal anesthetics · Voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav)
  • TetracyclineTetracyclines · Bacterial ribosome, 30S subunit (16S rRNA, A site)
  • ThiopentalIntravenous anaesthetics · GABA-A receptor
  • TiagabineAntiseizure medicines · GABA transporter 1 (GAT-1)
  • TicagrelorAntiplatelet drugs · P2Y12 ADP receptor on platelets
  • TigecyclineTetracyclines · Bacterial ribosome, 30S subunit (16S rRNA, A site)
  • TinidazoleNitroimidazoles · DNA of anaerobic bacteria and protozoa (after reduction of the nitro group)
  • Tiotropium bromideInhaled antimuscarinics · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M3
  • TirofibanAntiplatelet drugs · Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (integrin αIIbβ3)
  • TirzepatideGLP-1 receptor agonists · GIP receptor and GLP-1 receptor (dual agonist)
  • TobramycinAminoglycosides · Decoding (A) site of the bacterial 16S rRNA, 30S ribosomal subunit
  • TocilizumabInterleukin inhibitors · Interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R), soluble and membrane-bound
  • TofacitinibJAK inhibitors · Janus kinases, mainly JAK1 and JAK3
  • TolcaponeCOMT inhibitors · Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)
  • TolterodineOveractive bladder agents · Muscarinic receptors of the bladder (M3)
  • TolvaptanVasopressin receptor antagonists (vaptans) · Vasopressin V2 receptor
  • TopiramateAntiseizure medicines · Several targets; the figure shows carbonic anhydrase II
  • TopotecanTopoisomerase inhibitors · DNA topoisomerase I
  • TorasemideLoop diuretics · Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl⁻ cotransporter (NKCC2) of the loop of Henle
  • TramadolOpioids and antagonists · μ-opioid receptor (mainly through the metabolite M1) and the serotonin and noradrenaline transporters
  • Tranexamic acidAntifibrinolytic haemostatics · Lysine-binding sites (kringle domains) of plasminogen
  • TrazodoneAtypical antidepressants · Serotonin 5-HT2A receptor (also SERT, alpha-1 and H1 receptors)
  • TriamcinoloneCorticosteroids (glucocorticoids) · Glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a nuclear receptor
  • TriamterenePotassium-sparing diuretics · Epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) of the collecting duct
  • TriazolamBenzodiazepines · GABA-A receptor, benzodiazepine site
  • TrihexyphenidylAntiparkinson anticholinergics · Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1 shown)
  • TrimethoprimSulfonamides and trimethoprim · Bacterial dihydrofolate reductase
  • TriptorelinGnRH analogues (agonists and antagonists) · Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (GnRH-R)
  • UlipristalAntiprogestogens (progesterone receptor modulators) · Progesterone receptor (PGR)
  • Ursodeoxycholic acidBile acids · Bile composition (cholesterol saturation and bile acid pool)
  • UstekinumabInterleukin inhibitors · p40 subunit shared by interleukin-12 and interleukin-23
  • ValaciclovirAnti-herpesvirus agents · Viral DNA polymerase (through its active form, aciclovir)
  • ValbenazineVMAT2 inhibitors · Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2)
  • ValganciclovirAnti-herpesvirus agents · CMV DNA polymerase (through ganciclovir, activated by UL97)
  • Valproic acidAntiseizure medicines · Several targets: sodium channels, T-type calcium channels, GABA levels and histone deacetylases
  • ValsartanAngiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) · Angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor
  • VancomycinGlycopeptides · D-Ala–D-Ala terminus of the peptidoglycan precursor
  • VareniclineSmoking cessation medicines · Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α4β2
  • Varicella vaccineViral vaccines · Varicella-zoster virus glycoprotein E (gE)
  • VasopressinVasopressin and its analogues · Vasopressin V1a receptor (and V2 in the kidney)
  • VecuroniumNeuromuscular blockers · Muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (motor end plate)
  • VenlafaxineSerotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) · Serotonin transporter (SERT) and norepinephrine transporter (NET)
  • VerapamilCalcium channel blockers · L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (CaV1.2)
  • VigabatrinAntiseizure medicines · GABA transaminase (GABA-T)
  • VildagliptinDPP-4 inhibitors (gliptins) · Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4)
  • VinblastineMicrotubule inhibitors · β-tubulin (vinca site, at the junction between tubulin dimers)
  • VincristineMicrotubule inhibitors · β-tubulin (vinca site, at the junction between tubulin dimers)
  • VinorelbineMicrotubule inhibitors · β-tubulin (vinca site, at the junction between tubulin dimers)
  • VoriconazoleAzole antifungals · Lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51, the fungal ERG11 enzyme)
  • WarfarinVitamin K antagonists · Vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKORC1)
  • Yellow fever vaccineViral vaccines · Yellow fever virus envelope protein (E)
  • ZanamivirAnti-influenza agents · Influenza virus neuraminidase
  • ZidovudineNucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) · HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
  • ZolpidemZ-drug hypnotics · GABA-A receptor (α1-containing), benzodiazepine site
  • ZonisamideAntiseizure medicines · Voltage-gated sodium channels and T-type calcium channels
  • ZopicloneZ-drug hypnotics · GABA-A receptor (α1-containing), benzodiazepine site
  • Zoster vaccine (recombinant)Viral vaccines · Varicella-zoster virus glycoprotein E (gE)

Educational content on how drugs work; not a prescribing guide and no substitute for a health professional's advice. No doses are given.

Representative model, for educational purposes only.